History of Mathematics

History of Mathematics180 BC Hypsicles Number TheoryHypsicles was innate(p) in 190 B.C. in Alexandria Egypt. He was a mathematician and astronomer. He wrote the Anaphorikos or On the Ascension of Stars, where he divided the Zodiac into 360 and used arithmetic progression, a sequence in which each number increases by the same amount over the previous one (OConnor Robertson, 1999). He also wrote Book XIV of Euclids Elements, which was concerned with inscribing regular(a) solids in a sphere (Hypsicles of Alexandria, 2008).Diophantus of Alexandria, importr of the Arithmetica, which was the most dominant number theoretic work of ancient times, explained properties of polygonal song and added a rule to pose the nth m-agonal number, n 2 + (n 1) (m 2)/2, which he c blood-redited to Hypsicles (Tattersall, 2005).The number speculation, a branch of mathematics, is concerned with the study of the integers, and of the objects and structures that naturally arise from their study (Number Th eory, 2004).ReferencesHypsicles of Alexandria. (2008, January 1). Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved November 30, 2013, from http//www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Hypsicles_of_Alexandria.aspxOConnor, J. J., Robertson, E. F. (1999). Hypsicles of Alexandria. Hypsicles biography. Retrieved November 30, 2013, from http//www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Hypsicles.htmlTattersall, J. J. (2005).Elementary number theory in nine chapters(2nd ed.). Cambridge Cambridge University Press.Number Theory. (2004, February 1). number theory planetmath.org. Retrieved November 29, 2013, from http//planetmath.org/numbertheory60 BC Geminus Parallel PostulateGeminus was a Greek mathematician and astronomer, who thrived in the 1st century B.C. nada is known about his personal life, but his works suggested the possibility that he lived or worked on Rhodes. The Theory of Mathematics, which discussed the logical subdivisions of the mathematical sciences, was attributed to Geminus (Geminus, 2008). Geminus examin ed the principles behind concepts such as hypothesis, theorem, postulate, axiom, etc. and gave historical accounts of the development of the ideas (OConnor Robertson, 1999). In addition, The Theory of Mathematics included some relevant criticism of Euclids postulates, specifically the fifth, the parallel postulate, for which, he supposed, he found a proof (Geminus, 2008).The parallel postulate is Euclids fifth postulate equivalent to the idea that there is a unique parallel to any line through a point not on the line. (OConnor Robertson, 1999)ReferencesOConnor, J. J., Robertson, E. F. (1999). Geminus. Geminus biography. Retrieved celestial latitude 1, 2013, from http//www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Biographies/Geminus.htmlGeminus. (2008, January 1). Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved December 1, 2013, from http//www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2830901609.htmlCultural100 BC birth of Julius CaesarJulius Caesar, one of the most influential and famous men in Ancient Rome, was born in July 12 o r 13 100 BC in Rome and was killed during the Ides of March in 44 BC. He was a roman general, a statesman, an orator, a lawgiver, and a historian, who transformed the Roman republic into the powerful Roman Empire (Julius Caesar biography, n.d.). The following are some of his achievements (Julius Caesar, n.d.)He never lost in war.He was the leader of the invasion of Britain in 55 B.C.He ameliorate laws to benefit the people and made laws against the corrupt and unjust.He amended the Roman calendar, which is the one in use todayHe cleared up the governance of the Roman republic and became the benchmark to future Roman emperors and European leadersReferencesJulius Caesar biography. (n.d.). Bio.com. Retrieved November 30, 2013, from http//www.biography.com/people/julius-caesar-9192504Julius Caesar. (n.d.). Julius Caesar. Retrieved November 30, 2013, from http//www.roman-empire.net/republic/caesar.html20 BC Virgil AeneidPublius Vergulius Maro, Vergil or Virgil in English, was born in October 70 BC, near Mantua in northern Italy. Virgil, one of the best Roman poets, is known for his works the Ecologues, the Georgics and the epic Aeneid.The Aenid is considered as the Romans national epic. Virgil started to write the epic that will summarize his ideal Rome when Augustus became the ruler. The story is about Aeneus, a Trojan hero, whose mission is to establish a new Rome. The Aeneid shows the earliest years and destiny of Rome (Virgil, n.d.).Virgil worked on the Aeneid for the remaining years of his life, but he died because of a fever in 19 B.C., leaving the epic unfinished. He wished for Aeineid to be destroyed, but the current ruler, Augustus ordered for it to be finished and published. The Aeneid appeared in 17 B.C. (Virgil, 2004)ReferencesVirgil. (2004, January 1). Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved December 1, 2013, from http//www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3404706635.htmlVirgil. (n.d.). PBS. Retrieved December 1, 2013, from http//www.pbs.org/empires/romans/empire/virg il.html4 BC Birth of delivererJesus saviour, also known as Jesus of Nazareth, was born in 4 B.C. He was the founder and center of Christianity, one of the most influential religions in the world. Only a little was known about the childhood of Jesus, but the four biblical gospels Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John provide an account from his birth to his ministry (Jesus Christ biography, n.d.).ReferencesJesus Christ biography. (n.d.). Bio.com. Retrieved December 2, 2013, from http//www.biography.com/people/jesus-christ-9354382Jesus of Nazareth. (2004, January 1). Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved December 2, 2013, from http//www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3404703308.htmlJesus of Nazareth Biography. (n.d.). World Biography. Retrieved December 2, 2013, from http//www.notablebiographies.com/Ho-Jo/Jesus-of-Nazareth.htmlADMathematicalAD 50 disconfirming numbers used in China negatively charged numbers are numbers that are less than zero. The concept of negative numbers started in China. Negative num bers were used in Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art of Jiuzhang Suanchu in solving systems of simultaneous equations. The suan chou (counting rods) method was done with the use of red rods for positive quantities and black rods for negative quantities (Negative Number, n.d.). The rules for signed numbers were also give.The Chinese contribution of negative numbers is very important since it completed the whole numbers and rational numbers.ReferencesNegative Number. (n.d.). Negative Number. Retrieved November 30, 2013, from http//www.chinaculture.org/gb/en_madeinchina/2005-08/18/content_71977.htmAD 75 Heron measurements, grow, surveyingHeron of Alexandria, sometimes called Hero, is a Greek Mathematician and Engineer born in 10 A.D. Almost nothing is known about Herons personal life. Herons brilliance was shown in his writings in mathematics and mechanics. He wrote at least 13 books in his life covering topics such as geometry and mathematics, surveying, mechanics, pneumatics, au tomatic machines, war machines, optics and many more (Shuttleworth, n.d.).Metrica, a series made up of three books, concentrates on calculations of areas and volumes of bodies such as cones, cylinders, pyramids etc. The Heros formula, which stated the area of a triangle with given sides, A = sqrs(s-a)(s-b)(s-c) where s = (a+b+c)/2, was found in the Book I of Metrica (OConnor Robertson, 1999). Heron used arithmetic to solve complicated quadratic equations arithmetically, estimated the square roots of non-square numbers, and calculated cube roots (Hero of Alexandria, 2008). Mensurae consists of details of the different tools for measuring. Dioptra contains practical and mathematical methods for land surveying (Heron of Alexandria, n.d.).ReferencesHero of Alexandria. (2008, January 1). Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved December 1, 2013, from http//www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3404702942.htmlHeron Of Alexandria. (n.d.). Famous Mathematicians. Retrieved December 1, 2013, from http//www.famous -mathematicians.com/heron-of-alexandria/OConnor, J. J., Robertson, E. F. (1999). Heron of Alexandria. Heron biography. Retrieved December 1, 2013, from http//www-groups.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Heron.htmlShuttleworth, M. (n.d.). Heron of Alexandria A Beautiful Mind. Explorable. Retrieved December 1, 2013, from http//explorable.com/heron-of-alexandria